FUNCTIONAL SITUATIONs IN ACADEMIC WRITING

Introduction

In writing, there are different scenarios that dictate the way we write. The writing situations in academic writing are determined by the type of audience, purpose and the content of the topic. The writing situation determines how writers present their views. A writing situation could therefore be defined as a scenario under which a writer presents information. Depending on the situation (content, audience and purpose), a writer may argue, describe, compare and contrast, define, or discuss.

Objectives

 

At the end of this unit students should be able to:

Identify types of essays;

Identify the language and style of each writing situation;

Use a good argument for reasoning;

Demonstrate ways of critically assessing the validity and relevance of arguments in a piece of writing;

Outline the major function of writing;

Apply the overall academic writing techniques to essays or any other type of writing in an academic setting.

Factors that determine a writing situation

a. Audience

When you speak or write you need to think about your audience. You need to consider the following:

                                                                     

 

 

 

The audience’s knowledge of the subject;

Your relationship with the audience.

b. Register

 

In academic writing, register is a word that is used to refer to a type of writing. Depending on the purpose of writing and the audience the register to use can be either one of the following:

Formal;

Informal;

Technical;

Academic.

c. Purpose

There are seven main purposes for writing:

to interact;

to inform;

to find out;

to influence;

to regulate;

to entertain;

to record.

d. Content

The type of content to be covered by a particular text will determine the kind of writing. In writing a story on a birthday party, the language and style of that text will differ from writing a research report. In short, the content of the subject will determine the language and style used. An instructional word such as describe or discuss also determines how people write. A text that is meant to compare objects will differ from the one that aims at discussing ideas.

 Different types writing

The typical rhetorical situations and functions used in academic writing, according to Werlich (1976) and Lackstrom, Selinker & Trimble (1973), are:

Describing;

Reporting and narrating;

Defining;

Classifying/categorising;

Comparing and contrasting;

Generalising;

Writing arguments;

Expressing reasons and explanations;

Expressing degrees of certainty;

Writing critically;

Writing research reports;

Writing research results;

Writing research discussions;

Drawing conclusions;

Writing research abstracts;

Writing introductions.

In this unit, however, we are only going to look at the argumentative, compare and contrast, and the descriptive writing situations

Activity 1

Write 1 paragraph, in which you motivate Grade 7 learners who are about to sit for final examinations, on ‘how to study under pressure’.

Write a similar text, but this time to final year B.Ed. (Bachelor of Education) students.

In each case, identify the purpose and the register used.

Feedback: Students will be asked to describe the differences between the 2 texts, in terms of the vocabulary and language used. There ought to be differences because the academic maturity of Grade 7 learners is totally different from that of final year B.Ed. students.

Organising written answers

In planning a written answer, the instruction decides the text-type (discussion, explanation, etc.); the topic (with its restriction or expansion if there is one) determines the overall range of the subject matter but the aspect determines the particular content; viewpoint dictates which arguments, for or against, to use. The interaction between instruction and aspect will lead to decisions about the organisation of the essay. In the following question, those elements will be highlighted:

“Analyse the 3 factors that contributed to the economic improvement of Namibia between the years 1990 and 2007”.

Comment/Instruction:   analyse

Topic:                  economic improvement

Focus/Aspect:   3 factors that led to (the economic improvement) of Namibia between the years 1990 and 2007.  

 Viewpoint:       Positive (improvement)

• The essay

An essay is a piece of writing that contains several paragraphs and that is written about one topic. Some essay contents will require writers to present arguments; others will expect a writer to describe events and situations, to explain, and so on.

The aim of the essay should be deduced strictly from the wording of the title or question, and needs to be defined at the beginning. The purpose of an essay is to express your own thoughts about a given topic based on what you have learnt about the topic and on what you may have already known about the topic. The emphasis should be on working with other people’s ideas, rather than reproducing their words. The ideas, and people that you refer to, need to be made explicit by a system of referencing. This section will therefore explain the types of essays that are likely to be written in academic writing situations.

Your essay should have the following sections:

 

Essays are linear. They start at the beginning and finish at the end, with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetition. Writers are responsible for making their line of argument clear and for presenting it in an orderly fashion so that the reader can follow. Each paragraph in an essay discusses one major point and should lead directly to the next. The paragraphs are tied together with an introduction and a conclusion. An essay has three main parts:

An introduction;

A main body;

A conclusion.

The introduction

The purpose of the introduction is to show the reader what you are doing in your writing. It is also helpful to explain why you are doing it and how you are doing it.

The introduction consists of two parts:

It should include a few general statements about the subject to provide a background to your essay and to attract the reader’s attention. It should try to explain why you are writing the essay. It may include a definition of terms in the context of the essay, or any other text.

It should also include a statement of the specific subdivisions of the topic and/or an indication of how the topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically address the question.

The introduction should present the central idea or the main purpose of the writing. It should address the question that the essay is meant to answer.

The main body

The main body consists of one or more paragraphs of ideas and arguments. Each paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic. The paragraphs of the essay contain the main ideas and arguments of the essay together with illustrations or examples. The paragraphs are linked in order to connect the ideas. The purpose of the essay must be made clear, and the reader must be able to follow its development. It is important to note that although you may have different ideas in the body, each paragraph should address only one main idea.

The conclusion

The conclusion includes the writer’s final points.

It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the points made in the main body.

It should explain the overall significance of the conclusions, that is, the general points that can be drawn from the essay as a whole.

Read the following conclusions and note how in the first conclusion, the author is summarising the text in order to indicate to the reader that the text is coming to an end. In the second one, the author is concluding from what has been said earlier. Both conclusions indicate that the essay question has been answered.

Example 1

In conclusion, therefore, it can be seen that millions of people continue to be affected by water-related problems and, contrary to popular belief, future water supplies are not inexhaustible. So the situation is very serious, especially in view of the UN estimates of demand. Although projects to provide ever-increasing supplies of water indicate that a growing number of countries are aware of the present problems and of those to come, these more often than not are highly expensive and not very practical - and very time-consuming when time is a commodity in short supply. So, while research in these areas is important, the eventual solution would definitely appear to be worldwide conservation and pollution control - in other words, a greater respect for our most valuable natural resource.

Example 2

Altogether, it seems that we cannot accept without question the dramatic increase in recorded crime as corresponding to a real increase in victimization of the same proportions. But, however good it would be to explain away all, or even most, of the increase as an artefact of recording changes, this cannot be shown to be the case. We can plausibly infer that crime has been increasing in the last two to three decades, presenting a problem for explanation and policy.

(Note: Taken from Paul, R.H. 2004)

Language

The following phrases could be used when concluding your essay:

(Note: Taken from the Nature of Academic Writing by Chackland, P. 2004, p.209)

The conclusion should clearly signal to the reader that the essay is finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of the essay has been achieved and that the question has been answered.

Activity 2

Write an introduction of 1 paragraph on a topic of your own choice.

 Ways of organising essays in different writing situations

Essays are organised differently according to the situation in which they are written. Essays can be divided into the following main types.

 Descriptive essays

Describing an object or place;

Describing a sequence of events;

Describing a process;

Describing and explaining.

Argumentative essays

The balanced view;

The persuasive essay;

The “to what extent essay”.

 Compare and contrast essays

The contrast essay;

The compare essay;

The compare and contrast essay.

The descriptive essay

a. Description of object or place

Descriptive essays require you to state the appearance of something, or to state the major characteristics of it. Note the word state i.e. you are not asked to comment on the subject or to give your personal opinion of it. Questions are often introduced by:

Describe....

Narrate...

Tell....

b. Describing a sequence of events

Describing a sequence of events is simply telling a story. You need to state clearly when events happened or how one event caused another. Questions may be introduced by:

Give an account of...,

Trace...,

Examine developments in...

c. Describing a process

This is like telling a story, but here the connections between the facts must be clearly shown and explained. Group the events into steps or stages.

Examples of such questions are:

Explain/What is the connection between....

Describe the procedures by which...

The following table illustrates how you may plan an essay that describes a process:

(Note: Taken from the Nature of Academic Writing by Chackland, P. 2004, p.213)

Describing and explaining

When we are asked to describe or explain causes, factors, functions or results, the examiner wants us to group our facts. Similar causes are put together; for instance’ the economic causes of a situation.

Some of the words and phrases, which introduce this type of question, are:

Explain the causes/reasons....

Account for....

Analyse the causes....

Comment on (the reasons for)....

Show that....

Show why...

Examine the effect of....

Suggest reasons for....

Why did...?

What are the implications of...?

Discuss the causes of....

Discuss the reasons for....

The argumentative essays

There are two main methods of presenting an argument, and, in general, the one you choose will depend on exactly how the essay title is worded.

The balanced view

If the essay title begins with something like:

Give the arguments for and against....

Assess the importance of....

Examine the arguments for and against....

What are the advantages and disadvantages of...?

Evaluate....

Critically examine the statement that....

To what extent is...true?

or even just the word

Discuss....

It is then clear that a balanced essay is required. That is to say you should present both sides of an argument, without necessarily committing yourself to any opinions, which should always be based on evidence, until the final paragraph.

(Note: Taken from Analytical Writing by Werlich, L. 1999, p.115)

At its simplest your essay plan will be as follows:

The persuasive essay

This second type of argumentative essay involves stating your own point of view immediately, and then trying to convince the reader by reasoned argument that you are right. Perhaps the essay question will begin with something like:

Give your views on....

What do you think about...?

Do you agree that...?

Consider whether....

 

It is also possible that a question itself will be so controversial that everyone will hold a definite opinion in one direction or another.

The form of the essay will be, in outline, as follows:

(Taken from A Strategy for Good Arguments by Kotler & Anderson, 2003, p.29)

The to what extent essay

In this type of essay, the examiner gives you a statement. It appears true, but truth is never 100%. You must decide how true it is. Are there some areas where you disagree with the statement? If so, describe how far you agree, and your points of agreement and disagreement. Words used in the question are:

To what extent....

How true....

How far do you agree....?

Activity 2

Write 1 paragraph in which you describe the registration process at the University of Namibia.

Write 2 paragraphs in which you discuss whether in your view, the registration process at the University of Namibia is time consuming to students or not. Support your views with valid arguments.

Compare and contrast essays.

 The contrast essay

 

Contrast or distinguish between questions usually present you with two or more terms, instruments, concepts or procedures that are closely connected, and sometimes confused. The purpose of the essay is to explain the differences between them. Words used are:

Contrast....

Distinguish between...

What is/are the difference(s) between....?

What are the differences between....?

How are ... and ... different?

A suitable answer structure would be:

 

(Note: Taken from Writing Critically by Kotler, P. 2001, p.117)

b. The Compare essay

Compare questions usually present you with two or more terms, instruments, concepts or procedures that are closely connected, and sometimes confused. The purpose of the essay is to explain the similarities between them. Words used are:

(Note: Taken from Writing Critically by Kotler, P. 2001, p. 121)

 

Compare....

What features do ... and ... have in common?

What are the similarities between....?

How are ... and ... similar?

A suitable answer structure would be:

Compare and contrast essays require you to indicate areas in which the things to be compared are similar and different.

Compare and contrast....

 

The compare and contrast essay can be answered in the following way:

(Note: Taken from Fundamental Writing by Paul, R.H. 2004, p. 76)

 

Functional Situations in Academic Writing

 A function is an act that is meant to serve a particular purpose. In this case, the term functional (adjective of the word function) situation can be defined as a writing method that is applied in order to serve a writing situation; for example, which writing method should a writer apply when he or she is in a situation where he is required to discuss, to compare, to contrast, or to argue. This section will, therefore, explore ways of employing relevant styles and methods in different writing situations.

6.1 Functional Situations in Academic Writing: Arguing and discussing

In academic writing, arguing and discussing is often part of a larger piece of writing. In arguing and discussing, you are expected to present two or more points of view and discuss the positive and negative aspects of each case. On the basis of your discussion, you can then choose one point of view and persuade your readers that you are correct. This means giving your opinions (positive and negative) on the work of others and your own opinions based on what you have learned. You need to evaluate arguments, weigh evidence and develop a set of standards on which to base your conclusion.  As always, all your opinions must be supported; you should produce your evidence and explain why this evidence supports your point of view. It is important to distinguish between your claim (proposition, thesis) - your point of view, what you believe; your evidence (support or grounds) - the facts, data and examples that support your point of view;  and your reasons (warrant or argument) - why you believe what you do, how the evidence you have provided leads to the claim you are making (Toulmin, 1999). There are two main methods of presenting an argument, and, in general, the one you choose will depend on exactly how the essay question is worded.

 

a. The balanced view

In this case, you present both sides of an argument, based on actual evidence, without necessarily committing yourself to any particular opinion until the final paragraph.

At its simplest, your essay plan will be as follows:

(Note: Taken from Functional Writing by Paul, R.H. 2004, p. 108)

b. The persuasive essay

This second type of argumentative essay involves stating your own point of view immediately, and then trying to convince the reader by reasoned argument that you are right. The form of the essay will be, in outline, as follows:

(Note: Taken from Persuasive Writing by Mintzberg, H. 2000, p. 27)

To conclude it is important to note the appropriate language to use when making a point of your own, presenting an argument or disagreeing with a point of view. Academic writing encourages us to be diplomatic, while at the same time making sure that our points and ideas are registered and understood by our readers. To say for example that “I totally disagree with Mr X” or that “Mr Y is absolutely wrong” is undiplomatic and therefore not encouraged. You are advised to use phrases such as “Serious reservations may be raised against what Mr X has written because…. It is also important to make sure that you state your reasons as to why you disagree to a particular point of view. People may feel offended if you disagree with their views without providing valid reasons as to why.

Finally, linking words, as you have seen in examples given in this unit, must be correctly used. If a writer says ‘however’, it indicates that he is going to differ with an earlier point. If he says in addition, this means additional information to what was said, and not a different point of view.

REFERENCES

Checkland, P. (2004). The nature of Academic Writing, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, Chichester.

Kotler, P. (2001). Writing Critically.  New Jersey:  Prentice-Hall.

Kotler, P and Anderson, A. (2003).  A Strategy for Good Arguments, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Lackstrom C. (2003).  Discursive Writing. London: Groom Helm, London.

Leech, R. and Svartvik, T. (2000). Argumentative Writing. New York: Harper and Row.

Mintzberg, H. (2000). Persuasive Writing: A Handbook for Beginners. New York: Harper and Row.

Rumble, G. (2001). In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America’s best Academic Writers. London: Groom Helm

Paul, R.H. (2004). Functional Writing. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.

Peters, T.J. (2002).  A Handbook for Descriptive Authors. New York: Harper and Row.

Toulmin, C. (1999). Functional Situations in Academic Writing, London: Kogan Page.

Werlich, L. (1999). Analytical Writing, London: Kogan Page.

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